Motivation and Learning in Physical Education

Physical Education is undoubtedly important in the total development of the individual pupil. It is beneficial not only in the physical sense but also in the intellectual and emotional aspect of the child. In the physical sense, the child’s physical self-concept is influenced by the results and accomplishments in exercise and sports. Jarmo Liukkonin pointed out that the resulting self-concept â€Å"relies heavily on social comparison process, this means that the reference group and the class environment contribute to the developing self concept† (p 137). In view of the above, this paper intends to provide an overview of the learning situation in the physical education as well as an analysis of the issues in motivational learning in physical education, particularly on how effective are the different approaches to learning and teaching. This paper will also discuss on the application of the different theories about whether or not they are useful in the classroom instruction. At the last part, is a case study of a particular student featuring particular issue on the student’s physical, intellectual, and emotional growth. In general the paper will be more on analysis of the motivational and learning process in physical education involving all the different factors such as teachers, students, the different approaches used, and the relevance of the different theories in physical education. Overview Research and knowledge in Physical Education has been in rapid expansion over the last twenty years concerning the many factors that influence the learning and teaching of the Physical Education. Colin A. Hardy and Michael Mawer pointed out that this learning and teaching â€Å"include such issues as the context in which physical education teachers work, what teachers think about when they are teaching and planning their teaching, and the knowledge they require to teach effectively† (p. 1). Colin Hardy and Michael Mawers view seemed to be pragmatic yet analytical of the learning situation of the physical education. They were quite critical also of the enormous years spent on research yet it was only in recent years that the real emphasis on physical education was put on the limelight. They contend that despite of such amount of time spent on research, Hardy and Mawer contends that it is only in current years that research has begun to provide an insight into what physical education teachers feel about their role and their lives in teaching, and what pupils themselves feel about the physical education they experience in schools. In order to understand fully the importance of physical education subject, the question ‘why is physical activity valued’ deserves an answer. Katherine T. Thomas cited the health benefit associated with physically active lifestyle as will as other physical advantages resulting from physical exercise. Thomas pointed out, â€Å"One reason we value physical activity is the health benefit associated with physically active lifestyle. Other reasons are the developmental need to explore and master our environment, to express our selves through movement, and to feel satisfaction resulting from successful movement. Physical activity also provides an opportunity for affiliation. Being part of a group—as a fan, a team member, or a walking partner—meets human need† (p. 5) Thomas thinking on this subject is certainly practical and seemingly based on actual personal experience. Her statement sounds to be a good advice for anyone whose health condition is not in the best state. Indeed, physical education truly brings a lot of physical benefit to our physical body. Other authors however emphasized the achievement of goal in order to understand the motivation and behavior of physical activity such as in sport. Robert Daniel Steadward, Elizabeth Jane Watkinson, and Garry David wheeler noted some authors such as Nichols (1984, 1989) and Harters (1978) which pointed out the goal concept theory. According to them, the concept of the achievement goal theory, refer to how people evaluate their competence. It assumes that individual are driven to demonstrate competence, and that perceptions of competence are critical determinant of motivated behavior. Analysis of the Issues in Motivational Learning in Physical Education The issue that I found interesting is â€Å"how effective are the different approaches to learning and teaching.† Susan Piotrowski noted that there is no single approach is going to be the most effective way to cater for progression and continuity. She pointed out that several or all of these approaches need to be used together to achieved effective progression and continuity in the transfer from primary and secondary school. Piotrowski stated that â€Å"what will work in any one situation depends on a number of factors, including the schools and their transfer structures and procedures, the head teachers, primary and secondary education teachers and their ability to work together collaboratively† (p. 204). Piotrowski further stated that local conditions, facilities, expertise, and policies have a bearing on the type of curriculum that can be realistically offered in both primary and secondary in any given area. It is quite easy to accept Piotrowski’s view as it draws a practical option. Regardless of how others would look at the learning process, I believe it is complicated in the sense that physical education students have different level of intelligence, different cultural orientation, and physical and emotional developments, which affects their own learning process. Thus Piotrowski wisely stated ‘that there is no single approach is going to be effective, and that combining two or more of the various approaches may be more effective.’ On the other hand, Colin Hardy suggested that more pupil-centered and less direct teaching approaches would allow pupils to take a more independent and active role in decision making in physical education lessons. Ken Green and Ken Hardman, quoting Kane, (1976), Underwood (1988), and Wright (1995) identified differences in teaching approaches used in physical education; either due to the demands of different activities or different intended out comes. Green Hardman pointed out that the recommendation, which suggest that in order to achieve the range of the learning outcomes, â€Å"teachers should employ a variety of teaching strategies to cater for differences in pupils’ abilities, attainment, needs, and ages† (p. 112). Green and Hardman also recognized that there is a need for employing variety of teaching strategies. But they noted that this is because of the demands of the different activities, or the different intended outcome. Regardless of the reason, it is clear that there is a need for teachers to employ variety of approaches in the motivational learning in physical education, to insure progressive learning process. These approaches, however, must be suited to the local conditions, expertise of the teacher, facilities, and policies, all of which have bearing on the type of curriculum. An Application of the relevant theories from each topic Theories on motivation and learning in physical education have been formulated in an attempt to extend our understanding of the teaching and learning process. Among these theories, the theory of constructivism, the theory of behaviorism, and the theory of cognitive mediation are particularly helpful in understanding the learning process in physical education. Stephen J. Silverman and Catherine D. Ennis explained that Cognitive Mediation Theory â€Å"recognizes the significance of reinforcement activities in the learning process.   This explains that what students do in classes is an important step, or mediating factor, between what teachers do and what students learn† (p. 151). According to them, what the students do in classes affect also what teachers do.   Basically, these activities shape teacher’s lesson and students’ understanding of the lesson.   Here is the full explanation of Silverman and Ennis regarding this theory â€Å"Although this modification seems so simple, it is a powerful reconceptualization of the role of the teacher. Rather than directly causing learning, as inferred in the process product paradigm, the teacher from this perspective has the job of structuring the learning environment in a way that encourages students to think and act in ways that will, in turn, enables them to learn† (p. 151) The main architect of the constructivism theory is Von Glasersfeld (1987), which views students as active agents in their learning. According to this view, students brings with them to an educational setting prior â€Å"knowledge and experiences from which they interpret and give meaning to their present experience† (p. 151). Silverman and Ennis noted that in this theory, knowledge is not something transmitted from the teacher to the students but learner constructs knowledge through her or his interpretation of events from the framework of prior experience, in effect, building or constructing knowledge that has individual meaning.   Ã‚  To apply this theory, teacher must relate the lesson on students’ sphere of experience and allow students to explore the given knowledge utilizing their own experience.   As a result, students will gain meaningful experience out of the new knowledge learned in the classroom. On the other hand, adherents of behavioral theory emphasized that the study of learning focused on the memorization of simple and rote elements and on the behavior of the learner. Silverman and Ennis pointed out, â€Å"This view of learning focuses on the learner as a rather passive responder to externally imposed factors† (p. 134).   Silverman and Ennis stated that this theoretical lens views students as recipients and accumulators of knowledge, able to learn by listening to lectures, by reading or by rote drill and practice of isolated decontextualized skills. This particular theory is very significant in most studies wherein students have to gain basic understanding of theories of studies before finding the general concept; such as in the case of nursing in which fundamental issues such as anatomy and health ethics must be memorized well before finding its relevance to the field of work. Learning all these theories provide ample understanding as to how students could learns best the subject of physical education. It means that teachers must employ the use of these theories in their teaching strategies in order to ensure efficient learning process.   Physical Education as a subject is not that interesting for many students; and in that case, teachers must make every learning situation a worthwhile experience.   Hence, applying these theories can help learning enjoyable and fruitful. In the cognitive theory, students learn through the activities. It means, the physical activities in the physical education provide the pupils learning opportunity. In many cases, this subject is most of the time seventy-percent activities with thirty-percent lectures.   Students are expected to learn from physical exercise of the techniques with occasional coaching from the instructors.   They learn from trying and from their mistakes. Using Constructivism Theory, students learn by utilizing their own interest and socialization in the learning process.   By relating physical exercises in their own experience will result to students’ acceptability of the learning situation, which may result to higher learning of the subject. Behavioral Theory could be applicable in terms of learning the theories of the subject.   Here, students are expected to memorize different terminologies and techniques of the subject as well as history and rules of the game. Below is a case study of a student in high school who has an obvious intelligence yet performing just above average student. Case Study of a Student Rick is a high school with obvious sophisticated intelligence but performs merely just above average student in most of his academic subjects in school.   Although, he excelled in Mathematics, but his ratings in his physical education class has been poor because he is not participating in all the physical education activities class.   He has a lung problem that is why he does not participate in his physical education class. According to the theory of cognitive mediation, reinforcement activities in school such as physical activities in the physical education class, shape the teachers’ lesson and the student understanding. The theory of cognitive mediation implies that student learning can be cause by these activities too. In the case of Rick, although he has obviously sophisticated intelligence, yet his academic performance reflects merely that of above average student. Ricks problem is that because of his inactive physical condition, his learning potential is not fully consummated. Learning coming from his experience of the physical exercise is lacking. The theory of constructivism also teaches that ‘experience provides learning aside from the class room instructions. The theory of constructivism emphasized that ‘knowledge is not something transmitted from the teacher but learner constructs their knowledge through their experience. Rick’s knowledge has been only a result of spoon-feed learning. He could have excelled in all his subjects had he tried himself to be involve in the physical activities in his physical education class. On the other hand, Rick can be a good model in the behavioral theory of learning as the behavioral theory emphasized that students are passive responder of the externally imposed factors. In general, the theories of learning have been great help in the learning process. Work Cited Capel, S. & Piotrowski, S (eds). 2000. Issues in Physical Education.   London: Routledge. Green, K. & Hardman, K. 2005. Physical Education: Essential Issues. London: Sage Publications Company Hardy, C.& Mawer, M. 1999. Learning and Teaching in Physical Education. Great Britain: Biddles Ltd. Liukkonen, J. 2007.   Psychology for Physical Educators: Students Focus, 2nd Edition. USA: Human Kinetics. Silverman, S. & Ennis, C. 2003. Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction. USA: Human Kinetics. Steadworth, R.,Watkinson, E. & Wheiler, 2003. G. Adapted Physical Activity. Canada: University of Alberta Press. Thomas, K.   2003. Physical Education Methods for Elementary Teachers 2nd Edition. USA: Human Kinesics.